Environmental engineering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Environmental engineering - Essay Example Note that oxidation occurs in the presence of organic matter, so nitrate acts an electron acceptor in the absence of free oxygen. The chemical reaction in this phase can be represented as: The precipitation of ammonia in the form of MgNH4PHO4 (MAP) through the addition of phosphoric acid and magnesium oxide is called MAP process. In this process the pH value is critical in the precipitation of MAP. It has 90% efficiencies (Siegrist, 1996). This is a physico-chemical process. When the pH of wastewater is maintained to 10 is easy to convert NH4+ to free ammonia. Then, an air stream is used to capture NH3 and it is absorbed in a solution with sulphuric acid to form (NH4)2SO4. It has 97% efficiency, (Siegrist, 1996). This is a physico-chemical process called air stripping process. Finally, biological phosphorus removal technique offer advantages over chemical processes, reduced energy consummation and reduce sludge production (Park, 1999). This method is justified because phosphorus exists in several forms in wastewater: orthophosphate, polyphosphate and organic phosphates. Note that phosphorus comes from human excrement and detergents presents in domestic wastewater. 1. There are some microorganisms that without oxygen and nitrates (anaerobic atmosphere), assimilate and store fermentation products produced by other facultative bacteria. The microorganisms derive energy for this assimilation from polyphosphates organisms, which are hydrolyzed to liberate energy. The free phosphorus that results from the hydrolysis reaction is released to the mixed liquor (Sankaramanchi, 2010). 2. In the following anoxic or aerobic phase these same microorganisms, consume both phosphorus and oxygen to metabolize the previously stored substrate for energy production and cell synthesis. The organisms take up the phosphorus in excess. The phosphorus is removed from the system during the normal sludge wasting procedure (Sankaramanchi,

Herbal Phen-fen :: Pills Phen-fen Health Weight Loss Essays

Herbal Phen-fen "Lose All the Weight You Want", "Look Sexy and Feel Great", "Use the Safer Alternative", claim advertisements promoting the use of a recently-created dietary supplement known as herbal phen fen (CompuGraph International ) Created after the original phen fen (phentermine fenfluramine) drug was recalled from the market as a result of serious side effects, including severe heart problems which proved fatal for some consumers, the new herbal phen fen was praised by creators for being "all natural" and lacking any harmful side effects. One who relies strictly on internet advertisements for information concerning herbal phen fen, however, may be seriously misinformed and misled about the true nature of this herbal "cure-all" for weight problems. Articles from various journals and periodicals reveal a darker side of herbal phen fen, illustrating the possible harmful side effects of the pill and explaining the dangers of individual ingredients composing herbal phen fen. Claims of many advert isements for herbal phen fen drectly contradict medical research and scientific studies, raising questions about the effectiveness and safety of the new pill. Popular culture teaches people to search for immediate gratification and quick fix-all methods for every problem, thus fast-working pills appeal to those who don't want to spend months trying to lose weight by exercising and eating healthfully. Advertisers capitalize on this quality of public consumers by appealing to public demands for fast results. "Phen-'Nominal' Results Fast" states one ad on the internet, appropriately titled "Herbal Phen Fast", which boasts the pill's ability to "suppress the formation of fats". The ad, which was produced by the company HealthMatrix, Inc., portrays herbal phen fen as a quick, safe, easy and effective way to control hunger, reduce cravings and ultimately lose weight, yet avoids explaining the side effects of the pill by dismissing symptoms as "few and well-tolerated". The ad names and defines the two primary ingredients of herbal phen fen, St. John's Wort and Mahuang, explaining that the combination of these ingredients leads to weight loss. The ad is designed to appear scientific with the claim that the main ingredient of herbal phen fen, St. John's Wort, "prolongs the reuptake of serotonin in the brain", leading to feelings of personal satisfaction (HealthMatrix, Inc.) The ad provides no evidence, research or case studies for this claim or any other claims. Three quotations by consumers of the pill are included in the ad, but interestingly enough, though the consumers claim feeling "more energetic" and satisfied by smaller portions, none of the quotations actually mention weight loss.

Language is a system of differences without positive terms Essay

Ferdinand Saussure was the first structural linguist to reorient the study of linguistics and to take as an object of study the analysis of an arbitrary order of signs and their correlation with language. The arbitrariness of the sign is pervasive and is visible in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the signifier and the signified and a sign can be analyzed without its semantic context. This placed the sign within a system of differential relationships between signs and language. Thereby it became possible to study the basic elements of a language system as arrangements of contrasts and oppositions and arrive at â€Å"differences with no positive terms†. Saussure says a â€Å"linguistic sign exists only by virtue of its opposition to other signs; just as coins have values only within a particular system of coinage, and the identity of trains is only in terms of a particular railway system, so the links established between ‘significants’ and ‘signifies’ exist only through the system of oppositions by which, literally, that particular language is formed.   The conclusion is stark and radical.†Ã‚   Hence, in a â€Å"language system there are only differences with no positive terms† (Saussure 972). In order to arrive at an understanding of the â€Å"differences with no positive terms† Saussure divides language into two components. The first component is Langue which is an abstract system of language that has been internalized by a speech community. The second component is parole or the act of speaking or practice of language. While Parole is composed of heterogeneous, unrelated and differing elements, language is homogeneous union of concept and â€Å"sound image† or the signified and the signifier (both psychological). This notion of Lang has challenged translators of the text in English. There have also been a number of debates on the status of this term. There have been questions as to whether this refers to a mental entity—â€Å"a sort of platonic idea or merely designates a methodological concept, an abstraction that is a part of a heuristic strategy. The issue has been, and remains, the articulation of the twin notions of langue and parole, the latter being no less difficult to translate into English than the former. Some have opted for an ontological distinction on the model of the philosophical tradition that opposes essence and existence or â€Å"accidents†; others have reduced the difference to the pragmatic necessity of evaluating instances of â€Å"languaging† with respect to the opposite poles of a continuum going from the normative, idealized representation of a language to the open-ended actual utterances that are usually observed in verbal interactions. That Saussure himself was not entirely satisfied with these correlate notions of langue and parole seems obvious from his numerous attempts to specify the distinction† (Bouissac 6). Saussure contended that language is systematic and it is possible to investigate it using methodology that is used in investigating pure science. Hence, he calls the â€Å"life of the sign†, a science.   He names this science semiotics or the science that â€Å"studies the life of signs within society† (Saussure 962). The task of the linguist, in investigating this science is to â€Å"find out what makes language a special system within the mass of semiological data† (Saussure 962) and if we must â€Å"discover the true nature of language we must learn what it has in common with all other semiological systems† (Saussure 962).   Therefore, Saussure feels a need to begin with an understanding of the sign. Saussure offers a dyadic model of a sign in which the signifier and the signified are two parts of a whole.   This is a mental model in which a sign must have a signifier and a signified and the relationship between the two–a signification. Thus the sign itself is â€Å"immaterial† (not abstract), as it does not fix the signification of the signified. â€Å"The linguistic sign unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound image. The latter is not the material sound, a purely physical thing, but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression that it makes on our senses† (Saussure 963). He further elucidates the point: â€Å"without moving our lips we can talk to ourselves or recite mentally a selection of verse† (Saussure 963).   Thus the definition of the linguistic sign is â€Å"a combination of a concept and a sign image† and consequently, Saussure proposes to â€Å"retain the sign [signe] to designate the whole and to replace concept and sound image respectively by signified [signifie] and signifier [significant]† (Saussure 963). It logically follows, that the sign has two primordial principles: a) The sign is arbitrary by nature and b) The signifier is linear by nature.  The arbitrary nature of the sign: The linguistic sign is arbitrary and the consequences of this arbitrariness are infinite. The discovery of the arbitrariness is also not easy and requires many â€Å"detours† before they can be discovered. However, the discovery uncovers the primordial importance of this principle of linguistic signs. This very arbitrariness of the sign makes it ideal for semiological study and it is this principle that makes language the model for all other branches of semiology (Saussure 965). Moving on to examining the arbitrary nature of the linguistic sign, Saussure realized that reducing a sign to a symbol makes it less arbitrary because it creates a bond between the signifier and the signified.   The linguistic sign is not arbitrary because there is no natural connection between the two. (Saussure 965).   The argument that Onomatopoeia proves that a sign is not always arbitrary is dismissed as onomatopoeic â€Å"formations are never organic elements of the linguistic system† (Saussure 965). Interjections too show that there is no â€Å"fixed bond between the signified and signifier† (Saussure 966) and â€Å"Onomatopoeic formations and interjections are of secondary importance and their symbolic origin is in part open to dispute† (Saussure 965). The linear nature of the Signifier The auditory nature of the signifier implies that it has a span and the â€Å"span is measurable in a single dimension; it is a line† (Saussure 966).   This principle, according to Saussure is very important because â€Å"the whole mechanism of language depends on it† (Saussure 966). Auditory signifiers â€Å"command the dimension of time† and â€Å"their elements are presented in succession; they form a chain† (Saussure 966). This linearity is visible in writing where â€Å"the spatial line of graphic marks is substituted for succession in time† (Saussure 966). Having said this, Saussure moves on to consider language in terms of an organized system of pure values consisting of ideas and sound in order to arrive at the â€Å"differences without positive terms†. Linguistic Value: Language as organized thought coupled with sound In examining language as organized thought and sound, Saussure finds that â€Å"there are no pre-existing ideas, and nothing is distinct before the appearance of language† (Saussure 967).   Moreover â€Å"phonic substance is neither more fixed nor more rigid than thought; it is not a mold into which thought must of necessity fit but a plastic substance divided in turn into distinct parts   to furnish the signifiers needed by thought† (Saussure 967). Therefore, language forms a â€Å"link between thought and sound under conditions that bring about the reciprocal delimitations of units† (Saussure 967) and becomes an â€Å"articulus in which an idea is fixed in a sound and a sound becomes the sign of an idea† (Saussure 967). It follows that the signifier and the signified are intimately connected. The two cannot be separated just as two side of a paper cannot be separated. â€Å"Thought is one side of the sheet and sound the reverse side.   Just as it is impossible to take a pair of scissors and cut one side of paper without at the same time cutting the other, so it is impossible in the language to isolate the sound from thought, or thought up from sound.† (Saussure 967). Nevertheless, the â€Å"combination produces a form, not a substance† (Saussure 967) because it remains completely arbitrary. It is this arbitrariness that makes it possible to create a linguistic system. However, Saussure warns that it must not be assumed that it is possible to construct the system from the parts but the parts can be obtained from the whole by a process of analysis (Saussure 968). Linguistic Value: Conceptual View point The next logical question that occurs to Saussure is â€Å"How does value differ from signification?† He concludes that, while conceptually signification is an element of value, it is not the same as value. It is in fact distinct from it.   This is because â€Å"language is a system of interdependent terms in which the value of each term results solely from the simultaneous presence of others† (Saussure 969). â€Å"Initially a concept is nothing †¦ is only a value determined by its relations with other similar values, that without them the signification would not exist† (Saussure 971). To better appreciate the significance of his finding he compares the concepts of value and signification as they exist outside of language.   He finds that the same paradoxical principle governs values outside language. Values are composed of a) â€Å"dissimilar things that can be exchanged for the thing of which the value is to be determined† (Saussure 969) like a coin can be exchanged for a fixed value of another thing; b) â€Å"similar things that can be compared with the thing of which the value is to be determined† (Saussure 969) such as a two penny coin can be compared to another two penny coin. The value of a word, therefore, â€Å"is not fixed so long as one simply states that it can be â€Å"exchanged† for a given concept, i.e. that it has this or that signification: one must also compare it with similar values, with other words that stand in opposition to it. Its content is really fixed only by the concurrence of everything that exists outside it. Being part of a system, it is endowed not only with signification but also and specially with a value, and this is something quite different† (Saussure 969). Linguistic Value from a Material Viewpoint Do these relations and differences between the terms of language and their value stand up to the test of linguistic value from the material viewpoint?   Saussure thinks so. In his view the most important fact is that â€Å"the word is not the sound alone but the phonic differences that make it possible to distinguish it from all others, for differences carry signification† (Saussure 971). He does not find this surprising because â€Å"one vocal image is no better suited than the next for what is commissioned to express† (Saussure 971). Hence any analysis of a segment of language must be based on the â€Å"noncoincidence with the rest† (Saussure 971) and the â€Å"arbitrary and differential† are two correlative qualities of language. The arbitrary and differential qualities of language are validated by the fact that the terms in a language are free â€Å"to change according to the laws that are unrelated to its signifying function† (Saussure 971). For instance no positive sign characterizes the genitive plural in Zen. Still Zena and Zenb function very well even if they replace the earlier forms of the word. It has value because it is different. This quality of language is also validated by the fact that â€Å"signs function†¦not through their intrinsic value but through their relative position† (Saussure 971). This reveals the â€Å"systematic role of phonic functions†. For instance there is similarity in the formation of the words ephen and esten.   However, the former is an imperfect and the latter is an aorist. In this context Saussure notes that the sound is a secondary thing to language—a substance that must be put to use in language. The â€Å"conventional values† must not be confused with the â€Å"tangible elements† that support them. The linguistic signifier is â€Å"incorporeal† and â€Å"is constituted not by its material substance but by the differences that separate its sound image from all others†. This basic principle then applies to all material elements of language. He therefore, concludes that â€Å"every language forms its words on the basis of a system of sonorous elements, each element being a clearly delimited unit and one of a fixed number of units† (Saussure 971) Finally, considering the sign in its totality, Saussure quickly sums up his findings as â€Å"in language there are only differences† (Saussure 972). What are these differences? First language has â€Å"neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system† (Saussure 972).   In fact the idea or the phonic substance contained in the sign is of secondary importance as a change in the value of the term does not affect its meaning or its sound â€Å"solely because a neighboring term has been modified† (Saussure 973). Second when we consider a sign in its totality (Signifier / Signified) there are no negative terms. Therefore â€Å"a linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas† and the â€Å"the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass of thought engenders a system of values† (Saussure 973). This system, then serves to â€Å"link the phonic and psychological elements within each sign† (Saussure 973). The combination is a positive fact that language uses to maintain classes of differences.   The â€Å"entire mechanism of language† then â€Å"is based on oppositions of this kind and on the phonic and conceptual differences that they imply† (Saussure 973). This can also be applied to units and the characteristics of units can be seen to blend into the units themselves. So â€Å"difference makes character just as it makes value and the unit† (Saussure 973). Syntagmatic and Associative Relations Since Saussure views language as a something that is based on relationships, he divides relations and differences between linguistic terms into two distinct groups. These groups are associated with two types of mental activity that are essential to the life of language. Within the discourse â€Å"words acquire relations based on ..linear nature of language because they are chained together† (Saussure 974).   These are syntagnms. These syntagnms â€Å"acquire value because they stand in opposition to everything that precedes and follows them† (Saussure 974). Outside the discourse words can acquire a different relation. The syntagnms relations are in praesentia in which two or more terms occur in an effective series.   Language belongs to syntagnmatic relationships built on regular forms.   Associative relations are created by memory of the forms by comparing terms.

Sustainability of Marina Barrage a Critical Analysis

[pic] SUSTAINABILITY OF MARINA BARRAGE: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS DipHTM intake: DipHTM 10 Module: 3-month Project Lecture: Aji Divakar Student name: Li Zi Rong Student Number: DipHTM1022 Submission Deadline: 2nd November 2009 |I declare that all materials included in this essay / report / project / dissertation is the end result of my own work and | |that due acknowledgement have been given in the bibliography and references to ALL sources be they printed, electronic or | |personal. | Abstract Sustainable tourism acknowledges the fundamental link between long-term planning, concerning the environment,†¦show more content†¦(All business, 2009) The Marina Barrage is not only an attraction, but also make big progress in environmental, economical and social project. However, there appears to be some problems in environmental control segment to make the Marina Barrage become a sustainable tourism. The aims and objectives of this report are to improve the environment quality of Marina Barrage and to make it become a sustainable tourism so that it can attract more and more tourists from all over the world to visit the Marina Barrage. 2.0 Background of Marina Barrage The Marina Barrage is built across the mouth of the Marina Channel, and it creates Singapore’s 15th reservoir, and the first in the heart of the city. With a catchment area of 10,000 hectares, or one-sixth the size of Singapore, the Marina catchment is the island’s largest and most urbanised catchment. Together with two other new reservoirs, the Marina Reservoir will boost Singapore’s water catchment from half to two-third’s of the country’s land area. The Marina Barrage is the result of Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew’s vision nearly two decades ago when he envisaged damming the mouth of the Marina Channel to create a freshwater reservoir. (PUB, 2009) The Marina Barrage is a dam in Singapore built across the Marina Channel between the reclaimed lands of Marina East and Marina south. It was officially opened on 1 November 2008. The S$226 million project turns Marina Bay and Kallang Basin into a newShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesE SSAYS ON TWENTIETH-C ENTURY H ISTORY In the series Critical Perspectives on the Past, edited by Susan Porter Benson, Stephen Brier, and Roy Rosenzweig Also in this series: Paula Hamilton and Linda Shopes, eds., Oral History and Public Memories Tiffany Ruby Patterson, Zora Neale Hurston and a History of Southern Life Lisa M. Fine, The Story of Reo Joe: Work, Kin, and Community in Autotown, U.S.A. Van Gosse and Richard Moser, eds., The World the Sixties Made: Politics and Culture

Nathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown And The...

Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts on July 4, 1804 (Belasco). Hawthorne’s ancestry relates all the way back to the witch trials that took place in Salem during 1692 and 1693; his ancestor John Hathorne, was one of the three judges during the trials (Nathaniel Hawthorne). After Hawthorne graduated from Bowdoin College in 1825, he moved back to Salem and lived with his mother while he worked on his writing for the next twelve years (Belasco). During this time, he changed his last name, adding a â€Å"W† to it, to distance himself from those before him. Before his death, in 1864, he published many short stories two of which included â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† and â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil†. In 1835, Hawthorne published â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† which is â€Å"perhaps the greatest tale of witchcraft ever written† (Nathaniel Hawthorne). And in 1836, Hawthorne wrote â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil†, a story of an in-depth look at sin. Both of these short stories were written during a time when Puritanism was highly regarded and emphasized on all the communities. Puritanism started in England in the sixteenth century when a group of extreme Protestants separated from the Church of England (Bowden). Puritanism focuses on following the bible as if it is directions for life. A good portion of American Puritans lived in New England for more than two hundred years (Bowden). Puritanism is still around today but no as prominent and followed as it was during the time of Salem’sShow MoreRelatedSymbolism Is The Use Of Symbols To Signify Important Meaning1305 Words   |  6 Pagescontext. Hawthorne has several uses of symbolisms in his stories. Symbolism was very popular literary device during the Romantic period, where the object embodied some sort of idea. â€Å"The symbolism of his works focused on isolation and guilt of the individual, the uncertainties of good and evil, and the continual hold of the past on the present. Hawthorne focused on his Calvinist lineage and America s Calvinist ideological past, as well, in hopes of coming to terms and making sense of it. Hawthorne sRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown Essay1274 Words   |  6 PagesIn Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† the devil says, â€Å"Evi l is the nature of mankind† (â€Å"Young† 627). Since Adam and Eve ate the forbidden fruit and attempted to hide conceal their sin from God, humans have tried to hide their sin from others. Although everyone sin is human nature, everyone has a different reaction to sin. While some acknowledge sin, others ignore it. In Hawthorne’s other short story, â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil,† Father Hooper wears a black veil to represent the sin heRead MoreAnalysis Of Nathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown 1144 Words   |  5 PagesHawthorne s Ideal Woman In Nathaniel Hawthorne s short stories, Young Goodman Brown, The Minister s Black Veil, and The Birthmark, he provides us with female characters with very similar attributes, and they all have the same inhuman acceptance for the men they love. No matter what is thrown at these three unprecedented women they still show a extreme tolerance for their companions. While Goodman Brown, Mr. Hooper, and Aylmer struggle with their own appalling desires, their partners continueRead MoreAnalysis Of Nathaniel Hawthorne s The Minister s Black Veil 2532 Words   |  11 Pages If any single quality dominates the fiction of Nathaniel Hawthorne, it is a consistent fascination with the idea of human sin. This is explored and expressed in a wide variety of ways by him; a novel like The Scarlet Letter treats sin as more of a failing demanding understanding, while The House of the Seven Gables is a more complex treatment of sin, guilt, and redemption. So too do Hawthorne s short stories vary in how they address sin, but it remains clear that it is the core element of themRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s The Minister s Black Veil1975 Words   |  8 Pagesrealistic plot lines, morbid language, and many emotional torments. Nathaniel Hawthorne is well known for his contributions to this nineteenth century style. His works â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† and â€Å"The Ministers Black Veil† offer insight to the evil and dark sides of life that are lurking inside every human being and society. This evil is often formatted into the theme of sin, with much variation to each work. Whether Hawthorne describes selfishness, obsession, or even passion, the concealing ofRead MoreAnalysis Of `` The Scarlet Letter `` By Edgar Allen Poe892 Words   |  4 Pagesaround the same time also made an impact. Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in 1804 to an old New England family who can be traced to old Salem. He is best known for his short stories like â€Å"The Birthmark† and â€Å"The Minister s Black Veil†; and the classic novel â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†. He died in 1864 on a tour of the White Mountains in New Hampshire. Most of his stories takes place during puritan Massachusetts. â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† is such a story. It is about a young puritan man who has recently gotten marriedRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of Nathaniel Hawthorne s The Scarlet Letter 1777 Words   |  8 Pageswho wrote about this in his famous novels is Nathaniel Hawthorne. He came from a family of Puritans; therefore, he was well associated with that lifestyle. He applied the Puritan’s beliefs on Satan and witchcraft into his books – especially â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† and The Scarlet Letter. Both of these amazing literary works involved people battling evilness every day. Their whole lives revolved around it. In the 1600’s, in The Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne writes about a woman who committed adultery (somethingRead MoreSymbolism Of Nathaniel Hawthorne s Scarlet Letter And The Minister s Black Veil 1083 Words   |  5 Pagesof his writing counterparts, Nathaniel Hawthorne extensively uses symbolism in several of his major works to explore sin and human nature. The Scarlett Letter, â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† and â€Å"The Minister s Black Veil† are all vivid examples of this exploration and are the focus of this analysis. Before discussing his works, it is important to explore Hawthorne’s background to better understand how they connect to his writing and to his use of dark romanticism. Hawthorne came from Puritan ancestry. HisRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown894 Words   |  4 Pagesread. In â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†, I found several romanticism characteristics to be in this story. One being, the emphasis on feelings and emotions. Nathaniel Hawthorne writes, â€Å"The cry of grief, rage, and terror was yet piercing through the night, when the unhappy husband held his breath for a response.† The cry of anguish and pain are very applicable to the protagonist idea in this story. Brown also expresses feeling when he doesn t want to leave his wife Faith, but he feels that it s his role toRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Life And All The Things Going On1811 Words   |  8 Pages Nathaniel Hawthorne never really presented a solution to any of his protagonist’s problems, all we were left with questions of what is to become of them next? How did their actions help bring their problems to an end? These problems that aren’t solved are deep internal problems that can be solved by simply researching Hawthorne s life and all the things going on in his life around the time he wrote the story. Most of these problems are given to the protagonist because of problems Hawthorne face

Transmission Of Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Hiv )

Huge strides in the United States in controlling the rate of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has been made resulting in a significant decrease of its incidence since the epidemic advent. During the epidemic’s height in the 1980s of the United States, the CDC estimated its incidence at about 150,000 new infections per year. This figure plateaued and dropped significantly during the 1990s due to introduction of highly effective antiviral treatments and due to a overall public cultural shift with promotion of HIV education, HIV testing, and condom use, especially among the LGBT community which was affected disproportionately by HIV infection. However, during the 2000s, a small, growing trend of incidence rates was seen,†¦show more content†¦It was estimated that between the years of 2006 and 2009 alone, the number of new HIV infections among all 13 to 24 year olds due to male-to-male sexual contact increased from 61% to 71%, respectively. This has many implications for public health efforts because previously those most affected by HIV infection were adult men who have sex with men (MSM). The current research and work to reduce HIV is therefore mainly aimed at the MSM population, which may not translate to curbing infection rates in YMSM. In fact, studies that have looked at individual risk factors (i.e. unprotected anal intercourse, or UAI) seen in MSM populations as associated to increased risk of HIV infection among YMSM have found large inconsistencies. Current theories in the literature suggest that individual characteristics, social norms, and behavioral patterns within the YMSM population are highly interrelated and evolving, and individually can not predict accurately who among the YMSM population is at most risk. One particular compounding variable is the growing use of technology. YMSM are using technology (i.e. GPS compatible smartphones) to seek sexual partners which is largely changing their constructed social enviro nment and relationship patterns. Therefore, there is a call to use a more multivariate model of risks to better understand useful preventative strategies to

Many Faces of Oppression Free Essays

Tsitsi Dangarembga address several issues concerning women in her novel, Nervous Conditions. Three main issues include coming-of-age, colonialism, and patriarchy. They are all encountered by the central character, Tambu as she grows up in colonial Rhodesia. We will write a custom essay sample on Many Faces of Oppression or any similar topic only for you Order Now While living on the homestead with her family, Tambu witness the examples of oppression prevalent in her environment. The women in her immediate family are domesticated and for the most part uneducated. When Tambu learns of her aunt Maiguru†s education and â€Å"success†, she tries to ignore the potential images of the women on the homestead by working hard to go to school. Once she is granted an education with the help of her uncle, Tambu finds out that her aunt Maiguru is oppressed too, only in a different setting. Therefore the struggles women face are similar regardless of their class,or level of education. Tambu learns early about the oppression of women in the traditional patriarchal way of life on her homestead. For example, Tambu can not continue to go to school because her family lack the funds for her to go. However, her brother Nhamo is granted the right to go and is expected to do well. Their father boasts about his son†s education and gives him certain rights and privileges. Tambu resents the fact that her brother is able to get an education and she is not. She is constantly in conflict with Nhamo because of Nhamo†s arrogance. He retorts, â€Å"Did you ever hear of a girl being taken away to school? With me it†s different. I was meant to be educated† (Dangarembga, 49). Speeches like this contributes to Tambu†s increasing drive and desire for education. Tambu, seeking to break away from her oppression through education, asks her parents for maize seeds to raise her own crop and sell them for tuition. Her own mother†s years of oppression seeped into discouraging Tambu. My mother said being black was a burden because it made you poor†¦ [and] being a woman was a burden because you had to bear children and look after them and the husband† (Dangarembga, 16). Discouragingly the parents give the seeds to her and she raises her crop. She notices that her crop is coming up missing and finds out her brother was stealing them to keep her from going to school. However through determination and a little assistance, Tambu raises the funds for school. Her father, in an act of dominance tries to take the money away from Tambu†s education but is unsuccessful. Tambu gains a small victory in her journey to reach her dream. The death of Nhamo is a turning point in Tambu†s life. Because Nhamo was the only son in the family, Tambu took his place. Tambu is granted the chance to be a part of colonized life and the advantages it has over the poverty she has lived. All the whileTambu goes through her schooling she sets her sights to becoming what her aunt Maiguru seems to be. â€Å"She was altogether a different kind of woman from my mother. I decided it was better to be like Maiguru, who was not poor and had not been crushed by the weight f womanhood† (Dangarembga, 16). One of the examples Tambu is shocked to know is the oppression Maiguru encounters by obtaining her Masters Degree. Tambu is accustomed to the hierarchical forms of address which place women and children lower than men. She is surprised to know a woman can go that far and wonders why no one acknowledged her aunt†s degree. Again another example of oppression in Tambu†s family, especially the women, is that they didn†t like Maiguru acquiring that amount of education and therefore did not acknowledge her level of education. They did however,celebrate Babamukuru†s Master Degree constantly and gave all praises to him, even the women joined in. Another example of the oppression in a middle class household is Maiguru†s salary. Even though she had the education and the career in teaching, Maiguru never saw a penny of her earnings. They went directly to her husband. Even Maiguru shows her acceptance to this oppression by saying, â€Å"†¦ no one even thinks about the things I gave up. But that†s how it goes†¦ and when you have a good man and lovely children, it makes it all worth while† (Dangarembga, 102). Even though Maiguru was educated, she was still expected to marry and raise children, so her education only provided another way of serving her family. This confession disappoints Tambu because it shatters her image of Maiguru being an independent role model. Now, with the influence of her cousin Nyasha,Tambu must find and become her own image of an independent, educated woman. The patriarchal way of life in Rhodesia had many levels of oppression. From the poverty-stricken homesteads to the colonialized middle-class setting, women were being oppressed from something. Author Tsitsi Dangarembga, cleverly reveals these levels of oppression in Nervous Conditions. Main character Tambu is able to see some of these levels with her opportunity to go from her homestead to her uncle†s home while she grows and goes through school. She think she has escaped the oppression when her brother dies and she has the opportunity to leave home where oppression is prevalent. Tambu fails to see that oppression exist even in a colonized setting until she learns from her aunt and idol, Maiguru. Even with a high level of education and ability to make money, there was still the opportunity for oppression to exist, in Maiguru†s example, by not acknowledging educated women or having their earnings controlled by men. Although this realization now occurs to Tambu, she tries to find some other way to resist the oppression (refusing to go to her parents† wedding). Nervous Conditions is a great example of how women struggle regardless of class or level of education and whether they accept the oppression or resist it. How to cite Many Faces of Oppression, Papers